Access to
and dissemination of mapping data over the internet empowers the user of the
maps. Discuss.
For ease of reference, URLs referred to in this
text have been compiled online at http://www.khrm.net/webmaps
Due to the continued
development of the World Wide Web (WWW), software and communications networks,
it is now possible to efficiently serve electronic pictures and maps on the
internet. Weather maps, the chosen focus
of this essay, are ideally suited to this method of distribution due to their continually
dynamic nature and the time-sensitivity of this data. Kraak et
al. (2003) cite the greatest advantage of the WWW being it’s data
dissemination properties, and reinforce the empowering nature this presents the
internet user.
Historically, progress
in communication through printing presses, newspaper, telegraph, telephone,
facsimile systems and later computing networks, television and radio have
enabled meteorologists and cartographers to communicate between themselves, and
with the public with increasing efficiency (Monmonier, 1999. For more
information refer to appendix A). The
internet advances this exchange of information and ideas even further and
provides a number of other advantages in terms of accessibility and content
related possibilities. An online map
represents an ideal medium to represent this geographically sensitive weather
data.
As an introduction,
figure 1 shows how weather maps online can be categorised into several hierarchical
levels of interactivity, which shall be examined in turn.
Figure 1:
Classification of web maps (heavily modified from Kraak et al., 2001:3)
Static maps on the
internet are not updated at regular spatial intervals. For this reason the majority of static maps
are used for the display or archive of historic weather data (possibly for forecast/projection
purposes).
Dynamic weather
maps are those which are updated periodically.
These imply a supply of data and method of generating maps for viewing
online: sometimes this is entirely automated.
Being able to view weather forecast maps as soon as they have been
produced increases their longevity, relevance and therefore usefulness. This is an empowering nature of the medium
for the user.
Three levels of interactivity
exist between the map and the user: view only, hyperlinked and dynamic. In a ‘view only’ situation the map would be
used in a similar manner to paper maps or atlases, the web simply being a
method of their dissemination. The map
may be of various qualities and file sizes according to it’s file type and a
variety of different technical specifications discussed later.
View only maps
might also be animated; shrinking time as well as space on screen (Monmonier,
1999). Static versions of these maps
often describe particular events of geographic significance, such as freak
weather occurrences. The atmospheric
dynamics data and resources site[1]
exhibits an example of such a website, detailing a Monsoon in 1996. The site represents a significant resource
for the user, providing 2D and 3D Quicktime animations of the event, showing
moments of winds, currents and isolines.
The animations are provided in various different qualities. This type of online weather map is a useful
visual aid for this historical event, but at present it would take a large
amount of time and resources to provide this type of map for everyday purposes
– and would people be interested in downloading over 7Mb of animation on a
daily basis? The public interest
(particularly in the
Hyperlinked or
‘Gateway’ maps begin to exploit the multimedia and hyperlinked nature of the
web[2]. In these cases the map is used as an
interface or index to link to photographs, text, webpages, or multimedia such
as sound and video. The concept of the
‘hypermap’ was introduced by Laurini and Milleret-Raffort in 1990, although it
was possible to hyperlink maps before this date. Image mapping[3]
allows the web cartographer to specify different areas of a map image to
hyperlink to different objects. The
widespread extent of hyperlinking of text and images online has lead users to
expect or demand web objects to be clickable (Kraak et al., 2003) and delivered quickly:
“The WWW
is a fast medium used by impatient people” (Kraak et al., 2001: 23)
The vast majority
of commercial websites seem to fall into this category, possibly due to the
fact that they gather their data from similar sources or syndicate from similar
services. Services such as Wunderground[4]
use a map of the
Some hyperlinked
maps seem to draw heavily from televisual data, both in their presentation and
type of delivery. The UK based BBC
provide a unique online weather service[5] that
uses images similar to what appears on-screen for a feeling of continuity,
making the website more accessible to the user.
Weather.com[6]
follows a similar formula. In the
opinion of the author there are pitfalls to this method. One of the drawbacks of presenting weather
data on television is the associated time-lag and lack of interactivity. The web should represent advancement over TV
for weather mapping, not a facsimile of it.
Interactive weather
maps empower the user further by providing greater functionality to maps with
the ability to choose layers, colours or temporal and spatial aspects of the
map displayed. Often the increased
complexity and resources involved with producing these maps means they suffer
from a lack the comprehensive coverage of others. The map may update in real-time (according to
the dependant technology used to produce and display the map). Cartwright et al. (1999) demonstrate the feedback loop involved with
interactive maps and their creation in figure 2 (overleaf).
Figure 2: The
interactive cartographic communication process (Cartwright et al, 1999: 157)
Interactive weather
maps add a greater level of interactivity to the hyperlinked map by letting the
user specify different layers, or allowing interactive manipulation of the
viewed scene. WeatherOnline[7]
allows the visitor to specify different animated maps showing current (and
recent) temperature, humidity and rainfall etc.
The NOAA site[8]
alternatively grants the user the freedom to display their own area of interest
by zooming in from larger scale maps, and uses ‘mouseover’ data to provide
accurate data about an area when the cursor is hovered over it. Such interactive maps increasingly rely on
developing technologies such as Flash and Shockwave animations, VRML[9]
and GVIS[10],
which may limit their accessibility for users of predating technology. These interactive maps empower the user, as
they allow them to effectively ‘create their own weather map’. Critically, this also leaves the map open to
their own interpretation, and not provide as much real information and guidance
as a static map. Another website, UIUC
Weather[11]
allows the user to choose recent satellite images of a particular area and then
decide how many days of animation they require.
Maps play a key
role in meteorology and are useful to a wide range of end users from the in
different socio-economic and ethnic groups.
Being able to view current or projected weather conditions allows anyone
to shape their daily activities accordingly, and in this respect maps online
empower the common end-user. However while
many online weather services attempt to provide a one-size-fits all generic weather
service for record or projection, a number of sites exist that cater specifically
for certain user groups such as tourists or motorists (Peterson, 1995).
One such site is
Snocountry[12],
which provides weather data for skiers. Links are provided to relevant local
maps and web-cams to view skiing conditions at certain resorts. Users can post their own first-hand
experiences. These web-based maps are
extremely useful for the task they are intended (and therefore empowering to
the anticipated user), however the producer holds a large influence over the
action of the user. By excluding, for
example, a certain ski resort, the producer can influence the decisions of the visitor.
Hazard websites
target specific weather features that may be of danger to human life or
investment. Typically they provide data
on current freak events, and therefore activity on the sites may vary according
to these events. The majority of these
sites seem to be American in source, embodying the stereotypical dramatic
American obsession with such freak weather occurrences[13]. Accuweather’s Hurricane Centre[14]
provides a good example of this type of site.
Here, users can view details of past events and animate or discuss
current conditions with a satellite map and risk assessments as reference. The site covers a limited geographical area,
and dramatic colours and exclamations detract somewhat from the meteorological
data, presumably with the intent of provoking more of a reaction from the
reader and directing them towards their paid premium service (providing more
detailed commentary and rich media source such as video clips).
Advanced
climatologically forecast maps are available from services such as Meteosat[15]. These websites contain high quality satellite
images for a number of days in advance.
The basic layout and minimal descriptive text suggests that the intended
audience is the more informed geographer or climatologist rather than the
everyday user. This dense data empowers
this anticipated audience, but may bewilder others.
The web contains a
number of historical databases of weather conditions and maps. More commonly these are archives of satellite
images, filed in a database that can be queried over a WWW interface. One such example is the NCDC (National
Climatic Data Centre) website[16], archiving
weather satellite images from the early 1990’s.
Such maps are useful to a number of groups (such as academics and
researchers), and empower the user by letting them chose the exact date/time,
thermal band and perspective to display.
Climatologists interested in other areas of the globe may be
disappointed at the spatial limits of the images. The images are of high quality and contain a useful
overlay of a political
There are many
advantages of the web as a medium for distributing weather cartography, for
both the user and the producer of the map.
These can be summarised as the accessibility, choice and interactivity
for the end user, and the variety of means available to the producer.
The internet is
virtually unrivalled in its ability deliver data to a wide number of people at
a global level. Its nature means that it
can be accessed from any computer with a data connection worldwide, regardless
of platform, and increasingly also by other devices using wireless connectivity. Everybody from professional cartographers to
anyone with access to this new medium can view the same online maps (Monmonier,
1999). The cartographer can normally
distribute maps online at a much reduced cost to on paper, and the medium
presents many more possibilities for display compared to a flat sheet of paper
(Peterson, 1995).
Accessibility is
compromised, however, in socio-economic circumstances where the user or
community do not have the funds to own the hardware or connectivity to access
the medium. This is especially common in
third-world areas, resulting in an uneven global distribution of internet
users: In 2002 the US Census bureau reported approximately 605m people were
online, making up only 9.7 percent of the world’s population; thus
disempowering the 90.3 percent of people without access (Crampton, 2003).
Mitchell (1986) has
previously proposed that map knowledge is a social product. Foucault (1977) talks of this social power,
enforcing that the truthfulness of knowledge obtained is empirically linked to
the ‘will to power’ of the knowledge-seeker.
As the knowledge becomes more readily available surely this shifts the
balance of this ‘will to power’?
Whether
a map is produced under the banner of cartographic science – as most maps have
been – or whether it is an overt propaganda exercise, it cannot escape
involvement in the processes by which power is deployed (Harley, 2001)
In this quote Harley
identifies that maps are more than images acting as a means to an end. Instead they are increasingly becoming part
of a broader family of value-laden images.
No longer embodying a merely passive and descriptive view of the
physical features of the coverage area, the maps are socially constructed,
reflecting the views and outlook of the author (Harley, 2001). Do maps on the internet act as a catalyst for
this movement? Amateur, inexperienced
map makers may be more susceptible to replicating social and political
imperatives of the time in their maps (Wood, 1993). This is especially true for weather maps,
given their complicated and unofficially-standardised symbols (Monmonier,
1996:19). Foucault (1977) talks of this
inexperience in terms of the act of ‘surveillance’. The relative ease and low cost of producing a
map online would certainly imply this is so (Kraak et al., 2003). Accordingly
many online weather maps lack recognised features of paper maps such as
gridlines and scales.
Multimedia and
interactive presentation allows a more dramatic and informative cartographic
treatment of weather phenomena. It also
promotes integration of maps, graphs, pictures, written text and sound
(Monmonier, 1996). The inclusion and
presentation of these media however, enables the author of the map (or mapping
system) to further influence the view of the user, by using these mediums to
convey (consciously or subconsciously) their own political and social views
(Monmonier, 1996; Foucault, 1977). However
flexible and interactive the system, the user can see only what the data and
mapping system allow. Indeed some
information can be more easily
omitted under layers of superfluous data.
By seducing viewers into believing that an impressive colourful graphic
display or video animation contains accurate and relevant information,
geographic information systems can become a powerful tool of deception
(Monmonier, 1993, 1996 and 1999).
As well as
empowering facets, online weather maps also carry disempowering aspects for the
user and/or producer and characteristics which are shifting the process of
cartography and the role of the user and producer. These can be defined as the implications of
distributed mapping and the selective availability of the medium (geographically,
socio-economically, and terms of mental/physical abilities and the technologies
available).
Crampton (2003)
outlines several implications of online distributed mapping. The first is the transience of these maps, ie
their lack of historical legacy[17]. Surprisingly few archives of electronic maps
are kept compared to the careful preservation of some historical paper
maps. Paradoxically it is very easy to
create and keep archives of electronic maps compared to their paper
counterparts[18],
but perhaps cartographers see their dissemination as sufficient. As Crampton (2003) identifies, many more
people have access to electronic maps than their paper counterparts, perhaps
indicating a paradigm shift from the paper map (the product) to the serving of
the mapping environment (the process) (Crampton, 2003). Is this lack of contemporary legacy a problem
or do the infinite map possibilities possible with database-served sites such
as Multimap[19]
or MapQuest[20]
render archiving pointless or a task of too great a magnitude to be worthwhile?
The widespread
adoption of online weather mapping is changing the role of the cartographer. With the continuing development of mapping
servers to provide maps on demand, the user is increasingly empowered to the
role of the cartographer in creating his or her own maps; while the
cartographer may begin to be replaced by the web developer using a number of
standardised skeletal map elements (Peterson, 1995). Apart from affecting the employment prospects
of cartographers, this causes issues for the accuracy and consistency of online
maps, and could foreseeably lead to a conceptual widening of the field.
Much of Harley’s
work (1988, 2001) focuses around finding the empowering and disempowering
aspects of different maps for both user and producer. His work centres on unravelling the politics
and ideologies of maps to find their true meaning; leading to a repressive view
of power, echoing the ideas of Foucault.
Since these works there has been limited interest in a move towards a
critical politics of cartography, or one that bridges divides between theory
and technology (Crampton, 2003).
One of the fascinating
aspects of covering weather maps on the internet is the lack of international
selectiveness in the range of maps available compared to other web-mapping
areas (such as tourist or road maps).
Presumably this is due to the fact that a large amount of weather
information is remotely sensed from space, and that data for the whole globe is
required to make weather projections for any one area of the world. In this way more affluent, developed
countries such as the
Perhaps the most
considerable problem for the producer of the web map is the online medium
itself. The computer represents a completely
different way of viewing and interacting with maps compared to traditional
formats (Peterson, 1995). There are a
number of limitations imposed by the format compared to a paper map, or even a
digital map stored locally (for comparison with traditional formats and locally
stored media see Appendices B and C).
A problem common to
local and remotely served maps is the portrayal of maps on screen. Displaying a map onscreen is inherently
different from displaying it in a physical paper form due to several factors. Technically, the computer screen is limited
by it’s resolution: a finite number of pixels can be displayed at one time, and
zooming in on the image will limit it’s usefulness as a whole. The numbers of dots-per-inch displayed on
screen (normally fixed at 72dpi) is also substantially lower than that of a
printed map and the number of colours displayed may be limited in older
machines, resulting in a poorer graphic display. Overcoming these problems by using multiple
or large screens is expensive and not universally accessible (Monmonier, 1999).
Producing maps for
the screen produces the same problems of projection faced by paper mappers
(Harley, 2001), however 3D imaging and animation may serve to solve some of
these problems of displaying a spherical world on a flat medium.
The layout and
display of cartographic data and images may also differ according to the
hardware and software used to access the map.
For example different web browsers and versions of web browsers will
display certain web-page attributes in different ways and offer differing
levels of support for display technologies such as Java or Flash. Technical constraints can prevent certain
user groups from using an online weather mapping facility, thus disempowering
them. The producer will normally ensure the final product represents a
compromise between functionality and accessibility. Producers must also attempt to make weather
maps accessible to the sensorally impaired.
The speed of
internet connection is another technical problem impeding dissemination of high
quality mapping online. High quality
electronic images, animations, numerical or video files (or those which include
the greatest spatial resolution) tend to propagate large file sizes. This is especially true of modern formats
such as Flash and Shockwave or streaming media which pose a high strain on
bandwidth[21]. Large files take a long time to upload and download
using slower connection speeds still used by the majority of internet users,
especially those in lower socio-economic groups (Broersma, 2004). If higher bandwidth connections were the norm
would maps be served at a greater quality?
Copyright is an
awkward problem on the web as many people incorrectly assume anything viewed
over the medium to be in the public domain (Kraak et al., 2001). Techniques
such as watermarking maps with the producers details or securing the site
through access requirements (such as requiring registration) may help solve
these problems but this is a major restricting issue for map producers.
Non technical
constraints of the WWW format include the physical lack of touch that the user
has over the map and it’s lack of portability.
Portability is an issue that has been addressed lately with the arrival
of a number of convenient handheld devices and wireless technologies that allow
the serving and/or viewing of cartographic data on agents such as PDAs
(Personal Digital Assistants) or mobile phones.
The future holds
significant potential for online cartography and from analysing past trends it
is possible to make several assumptions about the future of this design
medium. Research shows that increasingly
the computer is being used to disseminate maps as well as produce them (Kraak et al., 2001). Peterson (1995) notes that far from making
the paper map redundant, paper will progressively be used to summarise
animations on screen. These web maps
increasingly take advantage of advanced presentation technologies and GVIS and
VRML (Dorling et al., 1997). Critically, Monmonier (1985) notes that
adoption of such technologies must be objective:
To
assume that maps will be better- more accurate, more timely, more accessible,
more aesthetic, more tailored to user needs- simply as a result of high
technology is unreasonably naïve. New
and evolving technologies for handling map information must be adapted
carefully and selectively (Monmonier, 1985)
Greater
information-integration is also apparent in the online environment, with
weather data increasingly being put to more cohesive use in websites serving
purposes for particular user groups, such as drivers[22]. Integration and communication between these
websites is also increasing, creating a network of information facilitated in
part by syndication technologies such as universally compatible RSS and XML
feeds.
As technology improves,
maps are becoming progressively more detailed, providing increasingly focused
data for the user. Developments in
technology include the widespread adoption of high bandwidth internet
connections which quicken download speed and enable the dissemination of
increasingly complex animations, videos and interactive multimedia
content. This gives the web cartographer
greater flexibility and the option to purvey high quality multimedia content. Monmonier (1999) argues that online maps will
supersede the TV channels and programs they currently supplement.
Much of the
existing literature covering online weather maps is obsolete due to the
fast-changing nature of the subject.
However it can be concluded that the maps have an important empowering
role both for the user and cartographer yet distribute with ease the social
contexts and hidden values that these maps contain. Interactive and dynamic content brings maps
into immediate context and provide a plethora of choice. Infinite possibilities presented by
interactive maps produce a situation where the map producer has little control
over the final product, requiring careful design forethought (Kraak et al., 2003). However, limitations of the web as a format,
and uneven spatial distribution of the medium and technological barriers means
that some groups are excluded from it’s reach.
Appendix A: A brief history of
meteorological maps and their dissemination
In order to appreciate the impact that mass dissemination of
mapping data has on it’s interpretation and usage, it is constructive to
examine a brief history of their production and distribution, along with the
communication networks that convey weather and climatic data to the
cartographer.
Monmonier (1999) provides a detailed account of the
development of meteorological maps from their very roots. From the advent of the telegraph in the
eighteenth century, dissemination of weather maps to the masses has been an
important aim for meteorologists and cartographers alike. Henry (1858) recalls large public maps with
weather symbols hung by clerks generating substantial public interest, noting
that the map was not only of interest to visitors in exhibiting the kind of
weather which their friends at a distance were experiencing, but also as a tool
for predicting future weather for their own location. Henry also remarks on the entertaining nature
of this novel map, a feature of meteorological maps which still promotes them
today. In 1857 The Washington Evening
Star became one of the first newspapers to publish a telegraphic weather
report, bringing weather information to the masses.
Advances in communication between measuring stations,
meteorologists, cartographers and publishers encouraged the dissemination of
mapped weather data, and when companies like the Daily Weather Map Company Ltd
saw commercial value in these maps for predicting weather conditions for other
professions, this advancement saw a new injection of funding (Monmonier, 1999).
The requirement of the military national defence for
accurate weather forecasting spurred the development of dissemination of
weather data and in 1860 Le Verrier helped to set up a system of regular
telegraphic weather forecasts for distribution to various ports and military bases
(Khrgian, 1970). Telegraphs and later
facsimile systems revolutionised weather reporting by allowing pictorial data
to be accurately transferred nationwide or even further a field. Further development introduced greater
synchronisation in data and dissemination through new media such as colour
newsprint, radio and television upon their adoption by consumers.
Increased public interest in weather mapping lead to a shift
away from detailed mapping for the meteorologist or professional and towards
simplified mapping for the general public.
Public interests in final physical outcomes lead to less observed data
being displayed in maps and more projected weather conditions with simplified
symbols covering larger areas. Monmonier
(1999) expresses the advantage of television as a weather map medium;
highlighting the ability to have a narrative as a major factor.
The earliest recorded map server existed in an online state
in 1993, using Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts to create maps on demand
according to a number of basic inputs such as attitude and longitude (Putz,
1994), forming the basis of the advanced metrological maps we see online today.
Appendix B: A comparison of the
online weather mapping format and more traditional formats
Kraak et al. (2001) draw a direct
comparison between online maps and television.
Table 1, below, critically analyses the merits and disadvantages of the
online map for various applications compared to other mediums.
Table 1: Contrasting Characteristics of different mediums
for presenting weather data/forecasts (adapted from Kraak et al., 2001; Monmonier, 1999)
|
Characteristic |
Newspaper |
Radio |
Television |
Internet |
|
Time-relevance |
Inherently
1-2 days old |
Up to
current, limited by restraints of broadcasting network |
Up to
current, limited by restraints of broadcasting network |
Up to
current |
|
Visual
element |
Static
graphics, possibly in colour |
None |
Moving
high quality graphics, video, photos and accompanying data |
Colour
graphics and photos Moving
video and graphics uncommon and of poor quality |
|
Interactivity |
None |
None |
None |
High
level of interactivity |
|
Access |
On demand |
On supply |
On supply |
On demand |
|
Spatial
Coverage |
Limited
to local, depending on scale of newspaper |
Limited
to local, depending on scale of broadcast |
Limited
to local, depending on scale of broadcast |
Not
limited |
|
Narrative |
Never |
Always |
Commonly |
Uncommon |
|
Explanation/interpretation |
Sometimes |
Commonly |
Commonly |
Possible |
|
Use of
Colour |
Restricted
by print |
n/a |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Depth of
information |
General |
General |
General |
General
to highly specific |
Table 1 shows that Kraak et
al.’s direct comparison with television is perhaps unfair due to the
different properties of the medium. It
also shows that the internet has many advantages for the dissemination of
weather maps, but also a number of limitations which will be explored later.
Kraak et al. (2003) point out that maps and
data on the internet is inherently different from paper maps because they are neither
physically visible nor tangible. In a
similar manner, forms of static data storage such as diskettes or CD-ROMs are
tangible but not visible.
Appendix C: A comparison between
local and remote served mapping data
Cartwright et al.
(1999) outline advantages and disadvantages of the web as a medium for mapping
compared to locally stored data (see table 2, below)[23].
Table 2: Local and internet-served mapping (commented from
Cartwright et al., 1999: 156)
|
|
Local Storage |
Internet |
Added Comment |
|
Number of
Users |
Positive
Attribute |
Positive
Attribute |
This
shows the age of the Cartwright et al.,
text. The internet now offers an infinitely larger audience than local
storage mediums. |
|
Platform
Availability |
Neutral
Attribute |
Positive
Attribute |
|
|
Development |
Negative
Attribute |
Negative
Attribute |
The
increasing ease of publishing material online and development of skills means
this gap is shrinking |
|
Data
Volume |
Positive
Attribute |
Neutral
Attribute |
Volume of
data is becoming less of a problem online as the cost of physical space falls.
Bandwidth (or the amount of data transferred over a connection) is becoming a
more valuable commodity. |
|
Transfer
Rate |
Positive
Attribute |
Negative
Attribute |
Although
connection speeds are increasing, many people still rely on dial-up
connections, limiting the potential practical size of map image files. |
|
Updateable |
Negative
Attribute |
Positive
Attribute |
|
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